Intracellular Accumulation and Secretion of YKL-40 (CHI3L1) in the Course of DMSO-Induced HL-60 Cell Differentiation.

YKL-40 (CHI3L1) is a matrix glycoprotein stored in human neutrophil-specific granules and released upon activation. While it is implicated in inflammation, cancer progression, and cell differentiation, its exact physiological role remains unclear. This study investigated the intracellular expression and secretion of YKL-40 by untreated and DMSO-treated HL-60 cells in association with surface expression of CD11b and CD66b throughout the differentiation process (up to 120 h). Secreted YKL-40 protein and mRNA levels of YKL-40, CD66b, and CD11b were measured by ELISA and quantitative RT-PCR, respectively. The intracellular YKL-40 and surface CD11b and CD66b expression were assessed by flow cytometry. A significant increase in CD11b expression confirmed DMSO-induced differentiation of HL-60 cells. Upon DMSO stimulation, YKL-40 mRNA expression increased in a time-dependent manner, unlike CD66b. The lack of CD66b (a granulocyte maturation and activation marker) on the surface of HL-60 cells might suggest that DMSO treatment did not induce full maturation or activation. The intracellular YKL-40 protein expression was increasing up to 96 h of DMSO treatment and then declined. YKL-40 secretion into the culture medium was detectable only at later time points (96 and 120 h), which was correlated with a decreased proliferation of DMSO-treated HL-60 cells. These findings suggest sequential changes in YKL-40 production and secretion during DMSO-induced differentiation of HL-60 cells and might contribute to a better understanding of YKL-40's involvement in both physiological processes and disease development, including multiple sclerosis.

Symbol Digit Modalities Test in progressive multiple sclerosis.

INTRODUCTION: The Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) is a highly sensitive neuropsychological tool used for the assessment of information processing speed (IPS) in various neurological disorders. STATE OF THE ART: In this review, we have focused on the current knowledge regarding the use of SDMT selectively in the evaluation of progressive multiple sclerosis (PMS) patients. A literature review was performed regarding the application of SDMT in PMS, with a focus on the primary progressive and secondary progressive subtypes. Relationships of diverse disease-associated factors with SDMT have been described, including disease course, imaging findings, molecular biomarkers, treatment and others. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: SDMT is a very useful and easily applicable instrument in the diagnostic armamentarium of neurologists and neuropsychologists. It is especially valuable in the evaluation of PMS patients, in whom the prevalence of IPS deficits is higher than in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis subjects or in healthy individuals. FUTURE DIRECTIONS: An emphasis should be laid on larger study groups and differentiating between individual PMS subtypes and their separate analysis in the context of cognitive assessment.

Differences in Brain Atrophy Pattern between People with Multiple Sclerosis and Systemic Diseases with Central Nervous System Involvement Based on Two-Dimensional Linear Measures.

Conventional brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in systemic diseases with central nervous system involvement (SDCNS) may imitate MRI findings of multiple sclerosis (MS). In order to better describe the MRI characteristics of these conditions, in our study we assessed brain volume parameters in MS (n = 58) and SDCNS (n = 41) patients using two-dimensional linear measurements (2DLMs): bicaudate ratio (BCR), corpus callosum index (CCI) and width of third ventricle (W3V). In SDCNS patients, all 2DLMs were affected by age (CCI p = 0.005, BCR p < 0.001, W3V p < 0.001, respectively), whereas in MS patients only BCR and W3V were (p = 0.001 and p = 0.015, respectively). Contrary to SDCNS, in the MS cohort BCR and W3V were associated with T1 lesion volume (T1LV) (p = 0.020, p = 0.009, respectively) and T2 lesion volume (T2LV) (p = 0.015, p = 0.009, respectively). CCI was associated with T1LV in the MS cohort only (p = 0.015). Moreover, BCR was significantly higher in the SDCNS group (p = 0.01) and CCI was significantly lower in MS patients (p = 0.01). The best predictive model to distinguish MS and SDCNS encompassed gender, BCR and T2LV as the explanatory variables (sensitivity 0.91; specificity 0.68; AUC 0.86). Implementation of 2DLMs in the brain MRI analysis of MS and SDCNS patients allowed for the identification of diverse patterns of local brain atrophy in these clinical conditions.

Predictive value of brain atrophy, serum biomarkers and information processing speed for early disease progression in multiple sclerosis.

Introduction: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune-mediated demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). A clinical presentation of the disease is highly differentiated even from the earliest stages of the disease. The application of stratifying tests in clinical practice would allow for improving clinical decision-making including a proper assessment of treatment benefit/risk balance. Methods: This prospective study included patients with MS diagnosed up to 1 year before recruitment. We analyzed serum biomarkers such as CXCL13, CHI3L1, OPN, IL-6, and GFAP and neurofilament light chains (NfLs); brain MRI parameters of linear atrophy such as bicaudate ratio (BCR), third ventricle width (TVW); and information processing speed were measured using the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) during the 2 years follow-up. Results: The study included a total of 50 patients recruited shortly after the diagnosis of MS diagnosis (median 0 months; range 0-11 months), and the mean time of observation was 28 months (SD = 4.75). We observed a statistically significant increase in the EDSS score (Wilcoxon test: Z = 3.06, p = 0.002), BCR (Wilcoxon test: Z = 4.66, p < 0.001), and TVW (Wilcoxon test: Z = 2.84, p = 0.005) after 2 years of disease. Patients who had a significantly higher baseline level of NfL suffered from a more severe disease course as per the EDSS score (Mann-Whitney U-test: U = 107, Z = -2,74, p = 0.006) and presence of relapse (Mann-Whitney U-test: U = 188, Z = -2.01, p = 0.044). In the logistic regression model, none of the parameters was a significant predictor for the achieving of no evidence of disease activity status (NEDA). In the model considering all assessed parameters, only the level of NfL had a significant impact on disease progression, measured as the increase in EDSS (logistic regression: ß = 0.002, p = 0.017). Conclusion: We confirmed that NfL levels in serum are associated with more active disease. Moreover, we found that TVW at the time of diagnosis was associated with an impairment in cognitive function measured by information processing speed at the end of the 2-year observation. The inclusion of serum NfL and TVW assessment early in the disease may be a good predictor of disease progression independent of NEDA.

Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers in Differential Diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis and Systemic Inflammatory Diseases with Central Nervous System Involvement.

BACKGROUND: Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis (MS) is established on criteria according to clinical and radiological manifestation. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis is an important part of differential diagnosis of MS and other inflammatory processes in the central nervous system (CNS). METHODS: In total, 242 CSF samples were collected from patients undergoing differential MS diagnosis because of the presence of T2-hyperintensive lesions on brain MRI. The non-MS patients were subdivided into systemic inflammatory diseases with CNS involvement (SID) or cerebrovascular diseases (CVD) or other non-inflammatory diseases (NID). All samples were analyzed for the presence of oligoclonal bands and ELISA was performed for detection of: INF gamma, IL-6, neurofilaments light chain (NF-L), GFAP, CHI3L1, CXCL13, and osteopontin. RESULTS: The level of IL-6 (p = 0.024), osteopontin (p = 0.0002), and NF-L (p = 0.002) was significantly different among groups. IL-6 (p = 0.0350) and NF-L (p = 0.0015) level was significantly higher in SID compared to NID patients. A significantly higher level of osteopontin (p = 0.00026) and NF-L (p = 0.002) in MS compared to NID population was noted. ROC analysis found weak diagnostic power for osteopontin and NFL-L. CONCLUSIONS: The classical and non-standard markers of inflammatory process and neurodegeneration do not allow for sufficient differentiation between MS and non-MS inflammatory CNS disorders. Weak diagnostic power observed for the osteopontin and NF-L needs to be further investigated.

Clinical Characteristics of Patients with Vertebral Artery Hypoplasia.

Vertebral artery hypoplasia (VAH) belongs to the relatively frequent Doppler ultrasonography (US) findings. However, its clinical significance remains controversial. This was a retrospective study analyzing clinical data of patients undergoing US because of cerebrovascular disease in a single academic neurology center. In the dataset of 2500 US examinations, 80 individuals with VAH (VA diameter < 2.0 mm) were identified (3.2% of all patients). Patients with significant vertebral artery asymmetry (SVAA, difference in VA diameters > 1.0 mm) (n = 80) and patients with normal VA diameter (n = 80) were also recruited. Clinical parameters including clinical signs and symptoms, concomitant diseases, imaging findings and the hospitalization outcome were compared between groups. The frequency of vertigo was highest in VAH group. Ischemic lesions of the cerebellum were found in 10% of VAH patients, 16% of SVAA patients and 5% of control subjects. Neurological deficits improved in over 60% of patients in each group, whereas ca. 30% of patients remained in a stable neurological status. The percentage of patients who deteriorated did not exceed 5% in any of the groups. The results of our study support a relatively high frequency of VAH. Our observations suggest coexistence of VAH with a higher frequency of neurological presentations associated with posterior arterial circulation of the central nervous system.

Analysis of Side Effects Following Vaccination Against COVID-19 Among Individuals With Multiple Sclerosis Treated With DMTs in Poland.

Background and Objectives: Since vaccination against COVID-19 is available for over a year and the population of immunized individuals with autoimmune disorders is higher than several months before, an evaluation of safety and registered adverse events can be made. We conducted a large study of side effects following the COVID-19 vaccine among patients with multiple (MS) sclerosis treated with disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) and analyzed factors predisposing for particular adverse events. Methods: We gathered data of individuals with MS treated with DMTs from 19 Polish MS Centers, who reported at least one adverse event following COVID-19 vaccination. The information was obtained by neurologists using a questionnaire. The same questionnaire was used at all MS Centers. To assess the relevance of reported adverse events, we used Fisher's exact test, t-test, and U-Menn-Whutney test. Results: A total of 1,668 patients with MS and reports of adverse events after COVID-19 vaccination were finally included in the study. Besides one case marked as "red flag", all adverse events were classified as mild. Pain at the injection site was the most common adverse event, with a greater frequency after the first dose. Pain at the injection site was significantly more frequent after the first dose among individuals with a lower disability (EDSS ≤2). The reported adverse events following immunization did not differ over sex. According to age, pain at the injection site was more common among individuals between 30 and 40 years old, only after the first vaccination dose. None of the DMTs predisposed for particular side effects. Conclusions: According to our findings, vaccination against COVID-19 among patients with MS treated with DMTs is safe. Our study can contribute to reducing hesitancy toward vaccination among patients with MS.

Release of Endocannabinoids into the Cerebrospinal Fluid during the Induction of the Trigemino-Hypoglossal Reflex in Rats.

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) plays an important role in pain processing and modulation. Since the specific effects of endocannabinoids within the orofacial area are largely unknown, we aimed to determine whether an increase in the endocannabinoid concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) caused by the peripheral administration of the FAAH inhibitor URB597 and tooth pulp stimulation would affect the transmission of impulses between the sensory and motor centers localized in the vicinity of the third and fourth cerebral ventricles. The study objectives were evaluated on rats using a method that allowed the recording of the amplitude of evoked tongue jerks (ETJ) in response to noxious tooth pulp stimulation and URB597 treatment. The amplitude of ETJ was a measure of the effect of endocannabinoids on the neural structures. The concentrations of the endocannabinoids tested (AEA and 2-AG) were determined in the CSF, along with the expression of the cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2) in the tissues of the mesencephalon, thalamus, and hypothalamus. We demonstrated that anandamide (AEA), but not 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), was significantly increased in the CSF after treatment with a FAAH inhibitor, while tooth pulp stimulation had no effect on the AEA and 2-AG concentrations in the CSF. We also found positive correlations between the CSF AEA concentration and cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1R) expression in the brain, and between 2-AG and cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2R), and negative correlations between the CSF concentration of AEA and brain CB2R expression, and between 2-AG and CB1R. Our study shows that endogenous AEA, which diffuses through the cerebroventricular ependyma into CSF and exerts a modulatory effect mediated by CB1Rs, alters the properties of neurons in the trigeminal sensory nuclei, interneurons, and motoneurons of the hypoglossal nerve. In addition, our findings may be consistent with the emerging concept that AEA and 2-AG have different regulatory mechanisms because they are involved differently in orofacial pain. We also suggest that FAAH inhibition may offer a therapeutic approach to the treatment of orofacial pain.

The influence of COVID-19 pandemic lockdown on the physical activity of people with multiple sclerosis. The role of online training.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 pandemic has affected people with multiple sclerosis (PwMS) on various levels. Pandemic lockdown influenced the access to typical measures of physical activity such as out-door training or gym exercises. METHODS: We performed a survey assessing physical activity during pandemic lockdown among PwMS treated in our MS center. The questionnaire encompassed questions regarding physical activity before and during lockdown, including the employment of online technologies. RESULTS: The survey was completed by 262 PwMS. Physical activity before lockdown was declared by 74.4% of PwMS, regular exercises were declared by 30.9% of participants. Among physically active PwMS 50.5% limited their physical activity during the COVID-19 lockdown. The decrease in physical activity was reported more frequently by PwMS with higher levels of disability, particularly declaring regular exercises before lockdown. In the opinion of 39,7% of PwMS online training could replace standard exercises, however only 19,9% of PwMS were actively looking for online training during the lockdown. The interest in online exercise was greatest in the group ≤30 years of age and EDSS ≤2. Synchronous exercises were the preferred online training, particularly among PwMS with EDSS≥4. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate a need for systematic educational and organizational measures, promoting physical activity among PwMS and acknowledging pandemic conditions.

Effect of Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase Inhibitor URB597 on Orofacial Pain Perception in Rats.

Endocannabinoids act as analgesic agents in a number of headache models. However, their effectiveness varies with the route of administration and the type of pain. In this study, we assessed the role of the fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitor URB597 in an animal model of orofacial pain based on tooth pulp stimulation. More specifically, we assessed the effects of intracerbroventricular (i.c.v.) and intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of URB597 on the amplitude of evoked tongue jerks (ETJ) in rats. The levels of the investigated mediators anandamide (AEA), 2-arachidonyl glycerol (2-AG), Substance P (SP), calcitonin-gene-related peptide (CGRP), endomorphin-2 (EM-2) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor by URB597 and receptors cannabinoid type-1 receptors (CB1R), cannabinoid type-2 receptors (CB2R) and µ-opioid receptors (MOR) were determined in the mesencephalon, thalamus and hypothalamus tissues. We have shown that increasing endocannabinoid AEA levels by both central and peripheral inhibition of FAAH inhibitor by URB597 has an antinociceptive effect on the trigemino-hypoglossal reflex mediated by CB1R and influences the activation of the brain areas studied. On the other hand, URB597 had no effect on the concentration of 2-AG in the examined brain structures and caused a significant decrease in CB2R mRNA expression in the hypothalamus only. Tooth pulp stimulation caused in a significant increase in SP, CGRP and EM-2 gene expression in the midbrain, thalamus and hypothalamus. In contrast, URB597 administered peripherally one hour before stimulation decreased the mRNA level of these endogenous neuropeptides in comparison with the control and stimulation in all examined brain structures. Our results show that centrally and peripherally administered URB597 is effective at preventing orofacial pain by inhibiting AEA catabolism and reducing the level of CGRP, SP and EM-2 gene expression and that AEA and 2-AG have different species and model-specific regulatory mechanisms. The data presented in this study may represent a new promising therapeutic target in the treatment of orofacial pain.

A Loop That Matters-An Unusual Case of Bow Hunter's Syndrome.

Bow Hunter's syndrome (BHS), also known as rotational vertebral artery occlusion (VAO), is a rare entity in which vertebral artery is reversibly compressed due to rotation or extension of the head, causing vertebrobasilar insufficiency. Because of VAO, BHS should be considered as a possible life-threatening condition. Diverse aetiologies of BHS may trigger a broad spectrum of non-specific symptoms and may result in frequent misdiagnosis of this disorder in daily clinical practice. Herein, we present a case of BHS caused by previously non-described vascular aetiology.

Safety of Vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 among Polish Patients with Multiple Sclerosis Treated with Disease-Modifying Therapies.

(1) Background: The present study aims to report the side effects of vaccination against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) among patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) who were being treated with disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) in Poland. (2) Methods: The study included 2261 patients with MS who were being treated with DMTs, and who were vaccinated against COVID-19 in 16 Polish MS centers. The data collected were demographic information, specific MS characteristics, current DMTs, type of vaccine, side effects after vaccination, time of side-effect symptom onset and resolution, applied treatment, relapse occurrence, and incidence of COVID-19 after vaccination. The results were presented using maximum likelihood estimates of the odds ratio, t-test, Pearson's chi-squared test, Fisher's exact p, and logistic regression. The statistical analyses were performed using STATA 15 software. (3) Of the 2261 sampled patients, 1862 (82.4%) were vaccinated with nucleoside-modified messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines. Mild symptoms after immunization, often after the first dose, were reported in 70.6% of individuals. Symptoms included arm pain (47.5% after the first dose and 38.7% after the second dose), fever/chills/flu-like symptoms (17.1% after the first dose and 20.5% after the second dose), and fatigue (10.3% after the first dose and 11.3% after the second dose). Only one individual presented with severe side effects (pro-thrombotic complications) after vaccination. None of the DMTs in the presented cohort were predisposed to the development of side effects. Nine patients (0.4%) had a SARS-CoV-2 infection confirmed despite vaccination. (4) Conclusions: Vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 is safe for people with MS who are being treated with DMTs. Most adverse events following vaccination are mild and the acute relapse incidence is low.

Optical Coherence Tomography in the Differential Diagnosis of Patients with Multiple Sclerosis and Patients with MRI Nonspecific White Matter Lesions.

In the differential diagnosis of nonspecific white matter lesions (NSWMLs) detected on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), multiple sclerosis (MS) should be taken into consideration. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a promising tool applied in the differential diagnostic process of MS. We tested whether OCT may be useful in distinguishing between MS and NSWMLs patients. In patients with MS (n = 41) and NSWMLs (n = 19), the following OCT parameters were measured: thickness of the peripapillary Retinal Nerve Fibre Layer (pRNFL) in superior, inferior, nasal, and temporal segments; thickness of the ganglion cell-inner plexiform layer (GCIPL); thickness of macular RNFL (mRNFL); and macular volume (MV). In MS patients, GCIPL was significantly lower than in NSWMLs patients (p = 0.024). Additionally, in MS patients, mRNFL was significantly lower than in NSWMLs patients (p = 0.030). The average segmental pRNFL and MV did not differ between MS and NSWMLs patients (p > 0.05). GCIPL and macular RNFL thinning significantly influenced the risk of MS (18.6% [95% CI 2.7%, 25.3%]; 27.4% [95% CI 4.5%, 62.3%]), and reduced GCIPL thickness appeared to be the best predictor of MS. We conclude that OCT may be helpful in the differential diagnosis of MS and NSWMLs patients in real-world settings.

Thalamus Atrophy in the Peri-Pregnancy Period in Clinically Stable Multiple Sclerosis Patients: Preliminary Results.

Radiological activity in the post-partum period in MS patients is a well-known phenomenon, but there is no data concerning the influence of pregnancy on regional brain atrophy. The aim of this article was to investigate local brain atrophy in the peri-pregnancy period (PPP) in patients with MS. Thalamic volume (TV); corpus callosum volume (CCV) and classical MRI activity (new gadolinium enhancing lesions (Gd+), new T2 lesions, T1 lesions volume (T1LV) and T2 lesions volume (T2LV)) were analyzed in 12 clinically stable women with relapsing-remitting MS and with MRI performed in the PPP. We showed that there was a significant decrease in TV (p = 0.021) in the PPP. We also observed a significant increase in the T1 lesion volume (p = 0.028), new gadolinium-enhanced and new T2 lesions (in 46% and 77% of the scans, respectively) in the post-partum period. Our results suggest that the PPP in MS may be associated not only with classical MRI activity but, also, with regional brain atrophy.

Speech Pathology-Specific Questionnaire for Persons with Multiple Sclerosis (SMS): adaptation, validation and preliminary assessment of the diagnostic potential.

INTRODUCTION: Speech and voice disorders are among the least well-described clinical manifestations of Multiple Sclerosis (MS) although their estimated prevalence reaches 40-50%. The aim of the present study was adaptation and validation of the Speech Pathology-Specific Questionnaire for Persons with Multiple Sclerosis (SMS) into the Polish language to be used as part of the diagnostic procedure to quantify important speech-related changes and to improve individual tailoring of therapeutic activities. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study included a total number of 178 participants. The study group consisted of 107 patients diagnosed with Multiple Sclerosis, mean age 42.8±11.6 years and the Control Group were 71 healthy sex and age matched normophonic subjects, mean age 44.2±12.5 years with no neurological symptoms. Translated version of SMS was administered to all participants of the study. Voice Handicap Index (VHI) questionnaire was used for comparison purposes. Test-retest reproducibility, internal consistency, floor and ceiling effects, discriminant validity and construct validity of the Polish SMS were investigated. Preliminary assessment of diagnostic value of SMS was conducted on the basis of the results recorded in duration-related quartiles of the Study Group. RESULTS: High value of Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC= 0 .930) obtained for the test-retest indicates a good level of reproducibility of the Polish SMS. High Cronbach's alpha (α=0.94) proves the test's good internal consistency. There were no floor and ceiling effects for the SMS test score in the Study Group and they were negligible in the Control Group. A significant difference in mean SMS total scores between patients and controls (14.22 points vs. 6.06 points) shows discriminant validity of SMS. Similar differences were observed for all the subscales of the test (in t test: p<0.001). A statistically significant correlation was found for the SMS score and its all subscales, as well as between all the subscales of the test proving good construct validity of the test. Similarly, statistically significant correlations were observed for the total score of SMS and VHI (r=.817, p <0.001) as well as between the particular subscales of SMS test and the subscales of VHI. There was a statistically significant difference in the mean total score of SMS in the distinguished quartiles of the Study Group with the highest values (20 points) recorded in the group of patients suffering from MS for over 15 years. CONCLUSION: The psychometric properties of the Polish version of Speech Pathology-Specific Questionnaire indicate that it is a valid patient-reported outcome measure suitable for the assessment of speech-language pathology aspects on the population of Multiple Sclerosis patients and can be used as an complementary diagnostic tool in clinical practice.

Recombinant Human Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone Increases the Percentages of Natural Killer T Cells and B Lymphocytes in Human Peripheral Blood In Vivo.

Multiple cellular and humoral components of the immune system play a significant role in the physiology and pathophysiology of various organs including the thyroid. On the other hand, both thyroid hormones and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) have been shown to exert immunoregulatory activities, which are difficult to assess independently in vivo. In our study we employed a unique clinical model for the assessment of TSH biological function in humans. The structure of peripheral blood mononuclear cell populations was investigated, using flow cytometry, in athyroid patients (n = 109) after treatment because of the differentiated thyroid carcinoma (DTC) at two time-points: directly before and five days after recombinant human TSH (rhTSH) administration. The analysis revealed significant increase in the percentage of natural killer T cells and B lymphocytes in the peripheral blood of rhTSH treated patients, whereas, we did not observe any effects on investigated subpopulations of dendritic cells and monocytes, T cells and natural killer cells. The findings of the study indicate the immune regulatory role of TSH, directed specifically on selected cell subtypes.

Cognitive impairment in NMOSD-More questions than answers.

INTRODUCTION: Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) is a type of central nervous system antibody-mediated disease which affects mainly optic nerves and spinal cord, but may also present with acute brainstem syndrome, acute diencephalic syndrome, and cerebral syndrome with typical brain lesions. One of the most disabling symptoms, diagnosed in 29%-67% of cases, is cognitive dysfunction, with such processes as memory, processing speed, executive function, attention, and verbal fluency being predominantly affected. However, description of cognition in NMOSD patients is still a relatively new area of research. METHODS: A systematic MEDLINE search was performed to retrieve all studies that investigated cognitive impairment and its clinical correlates in patients with NMOSD. RESULTS: We summarize the current knowledge on cognitive impairment profile, neuropsychological tests used to examine NMOSD patients, clinical and demographical variables affecting cognition, and magnetic resonance imaging correlates. We provide a comparison of cognitive profile of patients with multiple sclerosis and NMOSD. CONCLUSION: Patients with NMOSD are at significant risk of cognitive deficits. However, the knowledge of cognitive symptoms in NMOSD and potential modifying interventions is still scarce. Further accumulation of clinical data may facilitate effective therapeutic interventions.

Cognitive Dysfunction in the Early Stages of Multiple Sclerosis-How Much and How Important?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system that mainly affects young adults and that is one of the leading causes of disability in this age group, with cognitive impairment occurring early in the course of the disease. This article summarizes the current knowledge about cognitive dysfunction in the early phase of MS, including biomarkers, MRI correlates, and its value as a prognostic marker. RECENT FINDINGS: New sets of neuropsychological tests have been established to screen for cognitive dysfunction more easily and accurately. Moreover, structural changes detected by brain MRI and several biomarkers found in cerebrospinal fluid and blood serum have been recently correlated with decreased cognitive performance. Additionally, factors influencing cognition in MS, such as disease-modifying therapy, mood disorders, and lifestyle, are better described. Cognitive impairment early in the course of MS is suggested as a prognostic factor for disease progression. However, clear-cut definitions of the early stage of MS as well as unified criteria for the diagnosis of cognitive impairment are still lacking. New and more reliable tools for evaluating cognition in MS patients should be developed and introduced into everyday practice to facilitate the implementation of effective disease-modifying therapy, cognitive rehabilitation, and lifestyle management.

The Role of Optical Coherence Tomography in Differential Diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis and Autoimmune Connective Tissue Diseases with CNS Involvement.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether application of optical coherence tomography (OCT) measurements can provide a useful biomarker for distinguishing central nervous system (CNS) involvement in autoimmune connective tissue diseases (CTD) from multiple sclerosis (MS). An observational study included non-optic neuritis eyes of 121 individuals: 59 patients with MS, 30 patients with CNS involvement in CTD, and 32 healthy controls. OCT examination was performed in all subjects to measure retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness, ganglion cell complex (GCC) thickness, ganglion cell layer-inner plexiform layer (GCIPL) thickness, and volume of the macula. There was a significant group effect with regard to superior optic disc RNFL, macular RNFL, GCC, and GCIPL thickness, and macular volume. Post-hoc analysis revealed that MS patients have significantly smaller macular volume and thinner superior optic disc RNFL, macular RNFL, GCC, and GCIPL compared to healthy controls. CTD patients have significantly smaller superior optic disc RNFL, GCIPL, and GCC thickness compared to healthy controls. However, no significant group differences were observed between the patient groups (MS vs. CTD) on any outcome. Although a prominent retinal thinning may be a useful biomarker in MS patients, in a general population of individuals with a confirmed CNS involvement the use of OCT is not specific enough to discriminate between MS and autoimmune CTD.

Differential diagnosis of multiple sclerosis and other inflammatory CNS diseases.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common acquired demyelinating disorder of the central nervous system (CNS). Diagnosing MS can be very challenging owing to its variable clinical features and lack of specific tests. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a key measure in this process. Although white matter lesions on brain MRI are regarded as a hallmark of MS, they are a common radiological finding and their pattern may overlap in particular CNS inflammatory diseases. The increasing availability of therapies for MS and the knowledge of benefits associated with an early treatment underscore the importance of precise and quick diagnosis. Despite an extensive research, currently no fully specific diagnostic test is available to distinguish between CNS inflammatory disorders. In this review, we discuss characteristic findings and distinctive features of CNS inflammatory disorders, with particular focus on rheumatic diseases.